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★ The Modern Sailplane

の図

○Material

(1) Fiberglass
- Whilst being adequately strong, are quite flexible, and often bend to what appears to be an alarming amount.
GLASS and GRASSに注意
(2) Grass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)
- As plastic resins reduce in strength with heat, all fiberglass sailplanes are white on the upper surfaces in order to reflect heat.
- Colored markings to increase visibility may only be carried on the extremities of the structure.
○ Construction
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- The skin carries all loads and becomes the only structure, is capable of being molded to accurate tolerances and superb finish.
- An increase in performance that may only be achieved in wood or metal structure at much greater expense.
★ Three Forces

図

- It steady flight, the total reaction force balances the weight.
- The point about which the sailplane would balance is called the center of gravity designed to be close to same point at which the total lift force acts ; the center of pressure.
- Naturally different pilot weights, and different airspeed, will cause small changes in the position of the two centers.
- The sailplane is designed so that the center of gravity is always ahead of the center of pressure.
- The tail-plane is designed to make a small down load which can be varied to achieve a balance at different weights and speeds.
★ Airfoil

図

- The wing cross section.
- Its shape is designed to provide only a little resistance as it moves through the air, but at the same time, provide a pressure difference in the airflow over the upper and lower surface.
- The air pressure difference results in an upward force being exerted on the wing.
- Almost all gliders use an asymmetrical airfoil in which the upper camber is greater than the lower camber.
- This characteristics of an airfoil section produces good lift at slow airspeed.
(1) Leading Edge
- This part of the airfoil meets the airflow first.
(2) Trailing Edge
- This is the portion of the airfoil where the airflow over the upper surface rejoins the lower surface airflow.
(3) Camber
- The curve of an airfoil section from the leading edge to the trailing edge.
(4) Chord Line
- A straight line connecting the leading edge and trailing edge of an airfoil.
- An imaginally straight line between the leading and trailing edges of an airfoil section.
★ Wing Lift

図

- The force which supports the weight of the aircraft enabling it to fly.
- The amount of lift a wing produces depends on the airspeed and the angle of attack.
- The faster the airspeed, the greater the lift.
- The greater the angle of attack, the greater the lift – but only up to a critical angle.
- The net force developed perpendicular to the relative wind.
(1) Angle of attack

図

- The angle at which the wing meets the air.
- The acute angle between the chord line of an airfoil and the resultant relative wind.
(2) Relative wind

図

- The airflow relative to an airfoil.
-Parallel to and opposite the flight path of the airfoil.
○ Bernoulli’s Principle (Swiss) (80% of effect.)

図

- As the velocity of fluid (or air) increases, it’s internal pressure decreases.
- A positive–pressure lifting action from the air mass below the wing, and a negative pressure lifting action from lowered pressure above the wing.
○ Newton’s Third Law (20% of effect.)
- The force of equal and apposite reaction pushes against the action pushes.
- The air stream strikes the relatively flat lower surface of the wing when inclined at a small angle to its direction of motion, the air is forced to rebound downward and therefore causes an upward reaction in positive lift.
- While at the same time air-stream striking the upper curved section of the “leading edge” of the wing is deflected upward.
○ Center of Pressure = “CP”

図

- Conversely, the center of pressure moves ahead of the center of gravity at high angle of attack.
★ Stalling

図

- Beyond a critical angle, the smooth flow of air over the surface breaakc down and becomes turbulent.
- It always occurs when the wing is at its critical or stalling angle, regardless of weight or airspeed.
- The smooth air flow over the wing can be upset by trying to fly at too great an angle of attack, usually achieved by flying too slowly, but can be brought on by a very abrupt pull up, or very steeply banked turn.
(1) Stalling Speed

図

- For the same weight, the sailplane in straight flight will always stall at the same speed.
- A stalling speed will be increasing by
– Increasing the weight,
– Increasing the load factor,
– CG moving to the forward, and
– when wet.
(2) Aileron Stall

図

- Coarse aileron use at, or near, the stall can induce the side where the aileron goes down to stall and cause the wing drop sharply to the side.
(3) Lateral Damping
- The tendency of a glider to resist movement in the rolling plane, because of the increased angle of attack (and hence increased lift) of the down going wing.
- Loss of lateral damping is the primary cause of the one set of autorotation.
○ Recognition

図

- A turbulent feel from the controls.
- Buffeting
- Controls become excessively slow in response.
- It becomes quiet.
- Increased back pressure required.
- Wing – drop.
- The nose drops.
- A rapid loss of height.
○ Recovery

図

1.Stick Move forward.
2.Accelerate Until normal control be restored.
3.Wings level.
4.Pitch up To normal attitude.
- Contrary to what we would at first imagine, holding the stick back to raise the nose does not effect a recovery as this continues to keep the wing at the critical angle, and therefore it remains stalled.
- The aircraft goes into a steep descent, as long as the wing is held at a high angle of attack (by keeping the stick back) it has high drag, hence no great speed is achieved.
- To effect a recovery the angle must be reduced, the stick must be moved forward.
- Immediately on doing recovery the sailplane will accelerate and normal control will be restored very rapidly.
○ Prevention
- To recognize the situation and be able to recover with minimum loss of height.
Most sail plane have warning signs of an impending stall.
The alert pilot should acquaint himself with each types warning features, and be able to take the correct action if necessary.
- It is normal practice to always use a speed with a good margin above the stall when near the ground, known as a “safe speed near the ground.”
Safe speed is calculated as 1.5 times the stalling speed.
- When thermalling, the efficient speeds to use are often within five knots of the stall speed.
- Gusts can cause a temporally variation well in excess of the stall speed.
Thus it is not unusual to inadvertently stall.
- The recommended circuit speed for each type is usually at safe speed or slightly faster.
★ Spinning

図

- Where one wing has stalled before the other and the aircraft tries to yaw and roll towards that wing.
○ Spin stage
1. Slow pre-stall.
2. Stall.
3. Stall with wing drop.
4. Stall with commencement to spin. (Incipient spin)
5. Full spin. (More than one complete turn)
- Modern aircraft have very docile stall and spin characteristics and can be recovered from any stage.
○ Autorotation
- The loss of lateral damping leading to one wing stalling and the commencement of rotation in the direction of falling wing.
- Due to the large increase in angle of attack as this “inner” wing drops, with no lateral damping to stop it, the angle of attack increases even further, the drag increase is very large and a continuous rotation is encouraged.
- The “over” wing remains virtually un-stalled.
○ Recovery
1. Rudder. Apply full opposite to the direction of turn.
2. Stick Forward until the spinning stops.
3. Ailerons Central.
4. Spinning stop Check.
5. Rudder Center-rise.
6. Wings Level.
7. Pitch up Carefully from the resultant dive.
- The spinning will not stop on the application of rudder.
- It is the forward movement of the stick that un-stalls the wing, which stops the spinning.
★ Skidding & Spin

図

1. To compensate for over banking
(R)Aileron – UP
(L)Aileron – DOWN
2. While left turn
(R)Wing speed – Fast
(L)Wing speed – Slow
3. The angle of attack
(R)Wing – Small
(L)Wing – Great
4. When skidding airflow comes from out side
(R)Great angle of attack and lift wing is going up.
(L)Small angle of attack and lift wing is going down.
5. To compensate for increasing over banking.
(R)Aileron more up and still producing some lift.
(L)Aileron more down and exceed critical angle
- A spin toward the low wing, if you were to stall a sailplane in a skidding turn.
★ The total reaction of two forces

図

- Increased rearwards with respect to the airflow due to the airs resistance to the wing’s movement.
- For analysis we break the total force into components, one at right angle to the direction of travel, called “Lift”, and one in the opposite direction to the travel, called “Drag”.
★ Drag
- The parts of the glider have drag, so while lift comes only from the wing, drag is produced by the whole aircraft.
- A force opposing the motion of a body through the air.
○ Induced Drag

図

- The part of total drag which is created by the production of lift.
- In separable from the process of producing lift from the wing and it is proportional to the angle of attack of the wing.
- The drag is induced by the lift-producing process.
- Induced drag gets less as the aircraft speed increases, the opposite effect to that accurring with parasite drag.
○ Wing Tip Vortex

図

- One of the major drag producing areas are wing tips.
- There, the air tries to flow around the tips in order to equalize the top and bottom, surface pressure differences.
- The continuation of this flow and the forward speed creates a vortex at each wing tip.
- To minimize
– The wing are tapered to make the tips as small as in practical.
- Various shapes are used to reduce it as well.
- Some aircraft have vertical winglets as well to reduce vortices.
○ Parasite Drag
- That part of total drag created by the form or shape of aircraft parts.
- The aircraft speed increases approximately as the square of the speed.
(1) Form Drag
- The drag caused by the shape.
- To minimize
– Making the non-lifting parts.
(2) Skin Friction Drag
- Any roughness of the aircraft skin.
- To minimize
– Keeping the surfaces as smooth.
(3) Profile Drag
- Form + Skin friction drag.
(4) Interference Drag
- Combines the effects of form and skin friction drag. (Turbulence)
- To minimize
– Selecting the shape of components and positioning.
○ Total Drag

図

- The minimum drag and the highest L/D ratio (L/D Max) of a glider occur at the angle of attack and airspeed where the parasite drag and the induced drag are same.
- A glider will travel the maximum distance through the air when it is operating at an airspeed that produces the L/D max.
★ L/D Ratio

図

- The L/D ratio of a glider is an aerodynamic function that is determined by the angle of attack and is not affected by the weight of the glider.
(The L/D max always occurs at the same angle of attack.)
○ Best Glide Speed

図

- The maximum horizontal distance through the air can be obtained during the glide.
- With an equilibrium in the forces, the path of the glider in terms of horizontal distance covered / height lost, is equal to the lift / drag ratio.
- Thus the gliding angle is the flattest when lift / drag is at maximum corresponds to a definite angle of attack, which we must fly at achieve this performance.
- As we do not have an angle of attack gauge, we find that for the normal weight range, airspeed corresponds closely to angle of attack and this is used as pur glide for performance.
★ Wing Plan-form
(1) Elliptical wing
- A minimum of induced drag.
- Stall characteristics are inferior to the rectangular wing.
- Difficult to construct.
(2) Rectangular wing
- Stall first at the wing root and provides stall warning, aileron effectiveness, and quite stable.
- Low cost. (Easier to build)
- More drag.
(3) Taper wing
- Desirable weight and stiffness.
- Not as efficient aerodynamically as the elliptical wing.
- Very good stall characteristics when designed with a wash out.
- Decrease in drag.
- Increase a lift. (Aspect ratio)
(4) Sweep forward
- Moving the lifting area forward.
- Allow for a small change in CG whether flying solo or with the rear seat occupied.
★ Washout

図

- Most sailplane have a small amount of twist, or washout, built in to wing.
- This places the tip at a lesser angle than the wing root.
- The critical angle is reached first by the inner portion of the wing so that only a portion of the wing stalls.
- This allows the tip portion of the wing to remain un-stalled and also keeps the ailerons functioning effectively.
★ Aspect Ratio

図

- The ratio of wing span to wing chord.
(WING SPAN / AVERAGE WING CHORD)
(1) High Aspect Ratio
- Decrease the drag at high angle of attack.
- Less wingtip vortexes.
- Improving the performance when in a climbing.
- High lift coefficients.
- Increase in the length of span and the weight of the wing structure.
(2) Low Aspect Ratio
- Very high speeds demand greater aerodynamic cleanness.
- Greater strength.
- Increase in drag.
- High wing loading.
- High stall speeds.
★ Flaps

図

- When deflected, it increases the camber of the aerofoil and produces an increase in lift with an accompanying increase drag.
- Reduce stalling speeds and usually alter the stalling angle as well.
- The flap most commonly found on high performance sailplanes is the plain flap.
○ Negative Flap
- Upward or negative flap deflection reduces drag at high speed by allowing the wing to remain at its mast efficient angle of attack.
★ Airbrake

図

- Spoil lift and increase drag.
- An increase stalling speed of 2 – 5 knot but have no effect on the angle.
- Effective in controlling descent rate, is speed–limiting in a 30 degree dive and some older airbrake designs be speed-limiting in a vertical dive.
- When extended, they usually cause a nose-down change in the glider’s trim.
★ Spoiler

図

- The primary purpose of spoilers is to break up the smooth flow of air over the portion of the wing “spoiling” the lift. (Decrease lift)
- Limit ability to control descent rate and is not speed-limiting.
★ The Three Axes
- The sailplane is controlled around three axes of movement.
(1) Pitching

図

- About the lateral axes.
- The elevator controls the pitch of the glider and thereby controls it speed.
(2) Rolling

図

- Around the longitudinal axis.
- The ailerons control the bank or roll of the glider.
- The primary turning controls.
(3) Yawing

図

- About the vertical axis.
- The rudder controls the yaw of the glider.
★ Stability
- Sailplanes are designed to be either neutrally or positively stable.
○ Static stability
(1) Negative Stability

図

- If disturbed the ball will never return.
- Not stable enough
– The Pilot will be unable to achieve any precision in control.
(2) Neutral stability

図

- If disturbed the ball will move and continue unless a force is applied to stop it.
- Conveniently ignoring friction, of course.
(3) Positive stability

図

- If disturbed the ball will return to its original point.
- It may make a number of oscillations before stopping.
- Too stable
– The pilot will have great difficulty in maneuvering.
○ Dynamic Stability
(1) Negative stability

図

- The oscillations increase in amplitude.
(2) Neutral Stability

図

- Where oscillations remain at the same amplitude.
(3) Positive Stability

図

- The decreasing oscillations in its flight path.
★ Flatter
- An oscillation of a control surface or surface which can cause an excitation of the main surface (wing, tail-plan, etc..) of the aircraft.
- aileron movements at speeds in excess of the placard can start wing flexing that rapidly develops into a series of self-reinforcing movements.
These will increase in amplitude until the structure breaks.
- Once initiated it can only be stopped by reducing speed.
- Mass balances on control surface help to limit flutter to speeds that are too fast to be of any useful value.
○ Factors
- Excessive free play in the control surface.
- Incorrect to loose mass-balance weights.
- Loss of control circuit stiffness due to other factors such as broken control-rod supports etc.
- Flying outside placarded speed limits, usually too fast at high altitudes.
★ Longitudinal Stability (Pitching)

図

- The wings center of lift (CL) is to the rear of the CG.
- Nose heavy, keep the nose from continually pitching downward.
○ Trim Tab
- Gives the pilot an improved level off “FEEL” in the pitching plane, especially at high speeds.
(1) Balance Tab

図

- To provide a force movement of a control surface.
(2) Anti-Balance Tab

図

★ Lateral Stability (Rolling)
- Common procedure for producing lateral stability are dihedral, keel effect, sweep back, and weight distribution.
○ Dihedral

図

- The upward angle of the sailplane’s wings with respect to the horizontal.
- Low-wing sailplanes commonly have more dihedral than high-wing sailplane.
○○ In A Side Slip
- Low Wing
– Increased angle of attack
– Increased lift
- High Wing
– Reduced angle of attack
– Decreased lift
○ Sweepback

図

- The wings taper backward from the root of the wing to the wingtip.
- Improve lateral stability and aid slightly in directional stability.
○○ In A Side Slip
- Low wing
– An effective decrease in sweepback
– Meets the relative wind more perpendicular
– Increased lift
– Increased drag
- High wing
– An effective increase in sweepback.
– Decrease lift
– Decrease drag
★ Directional Stability (Yawing)

図

- The area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft of the CG are the prime contributors which make weathervane.
★ Turning

図

- The sailplane is turned by banking
- This allows a portion of the lift force to provide the turning force.
- In order for the sailplane to remain in steady flight, the lift must increase when it is banked to provide a component equal to weight.
- The Steeper the bank, the more lift is required.
- A vertical bank is no possible as there is no lift available to balance the weight.
- This increased lift is obtained by increasing the angle of attack, increases the drag also.
- Thus, in a turn, the sailplane sinks more rapidly than at the same speed in straight flight.
- Centrifugal acting out ward is opposite and equal to the inward turning force.
○ Load Factor

図

図

- The ratio of the amount of load imposed on an aircraft structure to the weight of the structure itself.
- A 1-G load factor is one in which the load on the structure is equal to the weight of structure.
- As the lift required in turning is greater than the weight.
- The inertia forces increase its apparent weight, and the structure must support a weight greater than that of the sailplane at rest.
- The greater the bank angle the greater the load factor.
- The centrifugal force acting on the sailplane as it is being pulled around in the turn.
○ Stall Speed

図

図

- Requires a higher angle of attack to provide the needed lift and as a result, there is a correlation between the angle of attack, the load factor, and the increase in stall speed.
○ Radius of Turn

図

- The rate at which the sailplane changes direction is governed by the angle of bank.
- The steeper the bank angle the more rapid the change of direction.
- The size of the circle made is similarly affected.
- For efficient flight we need to bear in mind that steeper turns increase the sinking speed as well.
- It should be noted that there is very little deterioration of sinking performance occurs.
- Thus in practical use turns of 20 to 40 degrees are generally used.
- Steeper banked turns are used where a rapid change of direction is necessary.
- A part from turning to position the sailplane, the turning performance is most important.
- Thermals are of limited size, and only by turning can the sailplane remain in them continuously, and thus gain height at the fastest rate.
★ Adverse Yaw

図

- The down-going aileron produce an increased angle of attack on that part of the wing, the up-going aileron produces a decreased angle of attack on the other side.
- increased angle of attack means increased lift (which causes the desired roll), but also means increased drag, which causes a yaw in the adverse direction.
○ Minimize The Effect
- Ailerons which are ridged in such a way that their upward movement is greater than their downward movement.
★ Ground Effect

図図図

- A condition of improved aircraft performance when operating near a surface.
- A usually beneficial influence an aircraft performance which occures when it is less than height of the aircraft’s wing span above the surface.
- A lower than the normal angle of attack produces the same amount of lift.
(1) Wing Tip Vortex
- Out board portion of the wing more efficient.
- Reduces wing tip vortex.
(2) Down Wash
- Reduces induced angle of attack and induced drag.
- Reduces down wash velocity.
★ Left Turning Tendency
(1) Torque

図

- The reaction to the turning of the propeller system.
- If the propeller system turns counter clockwise, the fuselage reacts by turning clockwise. (Newton’s 3rd Law)
(2) P-Factor

図

- The difference in lift exists between the downward half of the blade and the upward half.
(3) Corkscrew Effect

図

- Spiraling slipstream strikes the vertical fin on the left, it cause a left turning moment at high propeller speeds and low forward speed.
- Corkscrew flow of slipstream causes a rolling moment to the right.
- Counteracting torque reaction to the left.
★ Gyroscopic Precession

図

Force Response
Nose Up Turn Right
Nose Down Turn Left
Turn Right Nose Up
Turn Left Nose Down

- A phenomenon in rotating systems that makes all forces react with a movement 90 degrees from the point of force in the direction of rotation.
- The reaction to a force applied to a gyro acts in the direction of rotation and approximately 90 degrees of the point where force is applied.

図図図図

図図図

図図

★ Spin

図

1. Throttle Partial Power
2. Elevator Full Off
3. Prior to the stall “Break” C’K
4. Rudder Deflect
5. Elevator & Rudder Hold Full
6. Aileron Neutral

- Recovery
1. Aileron Neutral
2. Throttle Idle
3. Rudder Full Opposite
4. Control Briskly Forward
5. Rotation Stops C’K
6. Rudder Neutral
7. Pitch Smooth Up

(END)

★ Weight And Balance
○ Too Heavy
(1) Taxi
- Cause structural damage as a result of applying brakes.
(2) Take off
- Increase take off roll.
- Reduce its climb performance.
(3) Cruise

図

- Increase induced drag.
- Decrease cruise speed.
- Increase stall speed.
- Cause structural damage as result of turbulence, maneuvering.
(4) Landing
- Increase touch down speed.
- Cause structural damage as a result of hard landing.
★ Center Of Gravity : CG

図

- The theoretical point where the entire weight of the aircraft is considered to be concentrated.
- Must be positioned in a very small range.
- The maximum pilot weight will position it at the forward limit, and the minimum at the rear limit.
- The rear limit is more critical than the forward.
- Moving the balance behind the rear limit may result in the aircraft becoming uncontrollable one it has been upset, with dire result.
○ Ballast
- Most sailplanes are designed to take pilots from 150 lbs to 240 lbs.
- Heavier pilots have a difficult problem, but lighter ones will find it competitively easy to obtain and secure suitable ballast to bring them up to the minimum cockpit weight.
○ Extreme Forward CG
(1) Taxi
- Cause structural damage as a result of applying brakes.
(2) Take Off
- Nose too heavy.
- Increase take off roll.
- Reduce its climb performance.
(3) Cruse
- Impossible trim
- Increase tail down weight.
- Too stable in pitch.
- Impossible to up the nose from dive.
- Impossible to recover from stall.
- Increase induced drag.
- Decrease cruise speed.
- Increase stall speed.
- Cause structural damage as a result of turbulence manuvering.
(4) Landing
- Difficult to flare.
- Increase touch down speed.
- Cause structural damage as a result of nose gear landing.
○ Extream Aft CG
(1) Taxi
- Less effect nose gear
(2) Take Off
- Pitching up before reach lift off speed.
- Stall after lift off.
(3) Cruise
- Uncontrollable
- Impossible to trim to a safe speed.
- Decrease tail down weight.
- Unstable in pitch at all speed.
- Stability will be degraded.
- Impossible to lower the nose at stall.
- Impossible to recover from a spin.
- Flat spin.
- Decrease induced drag.
- Increase cruise speed.
- Decrease stall speed.
(4) Landing
- Impossible to lower the nose.
- Cause structural damage as a result of tail contact.
★ Definition
(1) Empty Weight
- The empty weight of the aircraft.
- Without pilot, fuel baggage.
(2) Gross Weight
- The maximum permitted flying weight.
(3) CG Range
- The range of movement of the center of gravity at various load combinations.
★ Sailplane Performance
- Calculated at the design stage.
- It is then tested to verify the calculations usually done by measuring the sinking speed at a series of different airspeeds.
- For accurate measurement, additional instrumentation.
- Observational checks can be made by flying with a type which has already been throughly.
○ Performance speed
Polar diagram at msl.

図

- The points are plotted to give a graph.
- From this performance curve, gliding angle and many other related factors can be calculated.
★ V-G Diagram

図

- The curved lines extending upward and down ward from a load factor of zero are the positive and negative lift capability lines.
- The horizontal line at 3.8G’s indicates the positive load factor limit.
○ V Speeds
(1) Vso
- The stalling speed in the landing configuration.
- Aircraft stalls on less of this speed with max. gross weight.
(2) Vs1
- The stalling speed in a specified configuration.
(3) Va
- The maneuvering speed.
- The speed above which only one-third deflection of the aileron and rudder controls are permitted and the elevator must be used in such a way as to keep applied “G” force within permitted limits.
- The speed at which full abrupt control travel at maximum gross weight may be used without exceeding the load limits.
- Control become more sensitive with speed, so when flying fast care should be taken to make only small smooth control movements.
- Maximum speeds are not always a matter of strength.
(4) Vno
- The NEVER exceed speed in rough air.
- The speed above which strong gusts in the atmosphere may cause damage to or failure of structure.
- Most fiberglass sailplanes have the same smooth and rough air placard.
- Glass is very strong but flexible, while it has more than enough bending strength, its twisting strengh is poor, and this sets the limit.
(5) Vne
- The NEVER exceeded speed in smooth air. = Maximum permitted speed.
- Flying in excess of this may cause damage.
- The greatest danger is from gusts or maneuvering causing sudden additional loading when at high speed.
- At less than the placard speed the aircraft will withstand the loads, above it damage may occur.
- Vne must be reduced with an increase in height, the reduced IAS with height as a result of decreasing air density.
- In the absence of detailed placard information, reduce Vne by 1.5% per 1,000ft from the absolute value on the placard.
(5) Vdf
- Velocity, demonstration flight.
- The maximum speed at which the aircraft is tested for certification purposes.
- 5% higher than Vne but lower than the theoretical structural limit (non-tested) of Vd.
- A test figure and must not under any circumstances be used as a flight limit in routine service.
★ Water Ballast
○ Use of Water Ballast
- Water ballast is used in some high-performance sailplane to increase their cruising speed. (In the wings or fuselage)
- The L/D ratio is a function of aerodynamic consideration and is independent of the sailplane weight.
- A glider carrying water ballast can increase its lift by flying faster, rather than by increasing its angle of attack.
- As the weight of the glider increases the airspeed must be increase to maintain the same glide ratio.
○ Additional Restriction
- Sailplane empty weights and maximum weights are listed so that where water ballast is fitted, pilots can determine how much they can carry.
- Most sailplanes are such that the ballast tanks may only be filled to capacity with pilot well below the maximum pilot weight.
- Ensure you check before filling the tank right up.
- The water is carried near the CG for minimum effect on CG and handling characteristics.
○ before Landing
- Water ballast should be jettisoned as the inertia loads are high and damage can result from anything but a perfect landing.

★ Compass

図

○ Pendulum Mounted
- To prevent sticking during turns
- They are stabilized in fluid.
- They are calibrated in 10 degree or 5 degree divisions of a 360 degree scale with North at 0 / 360 degrees.
○ Magnetic Compass Errors
OSUN
Over shoot – South
Under shoot – North
ANDS
Accelerate – North
Decelerate – South
- They are subject to a complex series of false indications while turning or changing speed.
- Directional indications are reliable only in steady straight flight.
(1) Northerly Turning Error (In the Northern Hemisphere)
Turning    Indication
From a heading of North.    A turn in the opposite direction.
From a heading of South.    Much faster rate than is actually being experienced.
- Most apparent when turning to or from headings of north and south.
- The vertical components of the earth’s magnetic field cause the earth-seeking ends of the compass to dip to the low side of the turn.
- Over shoot rate = The Latitude – 1/2 the bank angle (36deg. – 10deg. = 26deg.)
- Under shoot rate = the Latitude + 1/2 the bank angle (36deg. + 10deg. = 46deg.)
(2) Acceleration / Deceleration Errors
Changing Speed    Indication
Accelerating    A turn to the North.
Decelerating    A turn to the South.
- Most apparent on headings of east and west and during airspeed changes.
- The momentary tilting of the card from its horizontal position results in error.
★ Yaw String

図

Slip        Coordinate        Skid
Indicates    Yaw string
A Slip    Moving toward the outside of a turn.
A Skid    Moving toward the inside of a turn.
★ Inclinometer(Balance Ball)

図

Indicates    The Ball
A Slip    Moves to the inside of the turn.
A Skid    Moves to the outside of the turn.
- A ball-bearing in a close fitting curved glass tube which is fitted with fluid for dumping.
- It provides slip / skid information when displaced from center.
★ Pitot Static Instruments

図

ALTIMETER    VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR    AIRSPEED INDICATOR

- The bases for the function is differential air pressure.
- The atmosphere pressure surrounding airplane changing various situations.
- As climb to higher altitude the density of air decrease therefore the pressure of air is lower. = Density altitude increase.
- Sense the changes atmosphere pressure in provides with information concerning airspeed, altitude, and rate of altitude change.
- While the pressure surrounding  airplane is vented to all three through a static port which is positioned an area relatively undisturbed air such as side of fuselage.
- Only the airspeed indicator receives the rum air pressure, which enter through the small hole at the front of the pitot tube, which is amounted as exposed to the relative wind.
★ Airspeed Indicator

図

○ Operated by The Differences between Two Pressures.
- The pitot pressure is obtained from a tube facing forward and thus directly related to the forward speed.
- The static pressure is obtained from a static vents positioned so as to be least affected by speed and maneuvers of the sail plane.
- Measures difference between the rum air and static pressure and displays the result of indicate as airspeed.
- As the pressure differential changes the airspeed needle moves.
○ The PITOT
- Connected to the inside of an expandable capsule, it movement operates a pointer.
○ The Static Vent
- Connected to the inside of the instrument case which contains the capsule.
- Variations in pressure due to altitude are cancelled out.
○ Airspeed Indicator Errors
(1) Altitude Error
- Temperature variations are usually controlled in all instruments by incorporating bimetallic strips in the linkages.
- The atmosphere in not perfectly regular in its temperature variations, airspeed indicators are usually worst affected.
- They tend to under read by 1.5 ~ 2.0% per 1,000 feet up to 10,000 feet, and by more above that.
- The sailplane is actually traveling faster than the instrument indicates.
- As most gliding is done where the errors are small, they are usually ignored, except for performance testing.
(2) Mechanical Lag
- Whilst there is a small mechanical lag in most instruments delay in airspeed indicators is caused by the sailplane’s inertia.
○ Airspeed Indicator Marking & Extra Triangle Markings
> White Arc    Flap Operating Range
Flap speed maximums to indicate the relative flap position.
> Green Arc    Normal Operating Range
Covers the normal unrestricted control movement speed range to the Vno.
> Yellow Arc    Caution Speed Range
Extends from this to the Vne which is marked by red line.
Control movements in this speed range must be restricted to 1/3 of the maximum control deflection.
> Red Radial Line    The NEVER Exceed Speed
The maximum airspeed at which the sailplane should be flown in calm air.
> Orange Triangle    Maximum Sink Speed
Permits the least loss of altitude in a given time period.
> Blue Triangle
Correlate to the maximum horizontal distance covered.
> Yellow Triangle    Recommended Approach Speed.
An absolute minimum.
○ Pitot Static System blocked
○=OPEN, ×=CLOGGED
×    Air Inlet
○    Drain hole
○    Static
Indicator to drop to zero.
The pressure in the line will vent helps opening.
×    Air Inlet
×    Drain hole
○    Static
Performs like the altimeter
As climbs from altitude where the block occurred, the airspeed increases, conversely as descend the airspeed decreases.
The air pressure remains in line.
○    Air Inlet
○    Drain hole
×    Static
Indication is not correct.
Operating higher altitude then where the system become blocked, then the airspeed leads lower than it should, below the altitude, the airspeed indication is higher.
The greater the altitude change, the greater the error.
★ Altimeter

図

The Longest Pointer    Hundreds of feet.
A Shorter pointer        Thousands of feet.
A Very Small Pointer    Tens of thousand of feet.
A Small Subscale        Inches of pressure.

○ Sense Change in Surrounding Air Pressure.
- Essentially a barometer calibrated in feet.
- It consists of a number of linked, sealed, copper alloy capsules which expand as the air pressure reduces with height.
- The adjustment knob also sets a small subscale reading in inches of pressure.
- The expanding movement of the capsules in linked by mechanism to three pointers.
○ Altimeter Setting    7-2-2    91.121
(1) QFE – Height
- Aerodrome level pressure setting.
- At which the altimeter will read zero when the aircraft is on the ground at the aerodrome.
- In gliding, altimeters are usually set to zero on the airfield.
(2) QNH – Altitude
- Mean sea level pressure setting.
- At which the altimeter will read the aerodrome level above sea level when the aircraft is on the ground.
- This is the setting used by all powered aircraft operations below 18,000 ft.
- When landing away from the starting field, unless the height difference is known accurately, the indication are only a guide, for cross country flying.
- Station on root with in 100 nm.
(3) QNE – Flight Level
- Standard atmospheric pressure setting 29.92 in. (1013.2 hp)
- At which the internationally – agreed standard setting is set in the altimeter subscale.
- All aircraft flying above 18,000 ft are required to operate with this setting on their altimeters, to give a common reference above that level.
○ Altimeter Check
- Altimeters are checked to an accuracy of 50 feet at sea level and 200 feet at 20,000 feet.
- Within plus / minus 75 feet of the aircraft elevation.
○ Altimeter Errors
(1) Altimeter Stick
- Altimeters are made for power aircraft.
- As sailplanes lack vibration from the engine, they often stick slightly, usually not more than 200 feet.
- If they stick for greater amounts they should be over-holed.
(2) Temperature and Pressure Error
From High to Low or Hot to Cold, LOOK OUT BELOW!!
Altimeter Setting 29.96’in -> 30.11’in
30.11’in – 29.96’in = 0.15’in
1,000ft x 0.15’in = 150ft
Altimeter indicates 150ft HIGHER. You are flying 150ft below indicated.
- Colder than standard temperatures cause the altimeter to indicate an altitude higher than the sailplane’s actual altitude.
- The same situation exists when flying from a high pressure area to a lower pressure area without resetting the barometric pressure window.
○Pitot Static System Blocked

×    Static
×    Alternate Source
The altimeter freezes in place.
×    Static
○    Alternate Source
The altimeter will read higher than airspeed faster than the normal.
The pressure  inside of the cabin slightly lower than that surrounding.
If the alternate source is not available, brake the grass of the VSI.
★ Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

図

○ Senses How Fast The Surrounding Air Pressure Decreases or Increases As Climb or Descent.
-Displays the change as a rate in feet per minute.
- When a changing in altitude occurs, immediate resister the transit of moving, then stabilize show actual rate of altitude change.
○ Pitot Static System Blocked

×    Static
×    Alternate source
The VSI return to zero
×    Static
○    Alternate Source
Still react to change in the rate of climb or descend.
★ Variometers

図

○ Show at What Rate The Sailplane is Gaining or Loosing Height.
- They all work by the reduction of pressure with height.
- They have a capacity flask which is usually a vacuum flask to insulate against heat variations, done through the static vents or a ventury
flask = フラスコ
(1) Mechanical Variometer
- These have a vane which the airflow moves as it flows in or out.
- This vane varies the size of the opening according to the rate of flow, linked to an indicator needle.
- As the airflows and forces they produce are very small, the moving parts are finely balanced and quite delicate.
- This type of instrument has a lag of one to five seconds.
(2) Electric Variometer
- These have sensing wires that carry a small electric current, in the “IN” and “OUT”
flow tubes.
- The electric conductivity of the metal used for these wire is very sensitive to temperature change. Any flow past them will provide cooling, and thus alter the electric current shown on the indicator.
- In these instruments the airflow provides no forces of operation and thus their response is very fast.
- Usually some from of mechanical or electrical ones, allowing changeable scales and adjustable damping at the flick of switch.
- As well as operating an indicator most electric variometers have an audio attachment, provides a varying or intermittent tone to indicate lift or sink.
(3) Netlo Variometer (Airmass Variometer)
- Shows at what rate the air around the  sailplane is going up or down, done by taking the sailplane’s normal height loss / speed relationship out of the instrument reading.
(From which the sink – rate of the glider at any given speed is subtracted.)
- It is most useful at high speeds and can be sometimes used to lead the sailplane to a thermal.
(Shown only sink rate of the air through.)
○ Total Energy Compensator
- For a variometer reduces the climb and dive errors that are caused by airspeed, and shows only when the sailplane is climbing in rising air currents.
- A total energy variometer has been compensated to respond only to changes in the total energy of the sailplane.
- A change in airspeed due to stick deflection does not register as sink as or lift.
- Variometers used in sailplanes are so sensitive that they indicate climbs and descents as a result of change in airspeed.
- If a sailplane is flown at speed, and then zoomed up, the variometer will show a climb as the sailplane will gain height.
- It will reduce airspeed at the same time.
- At any stage of this maneuver , the sum of its kinetic (speed) energy and its potential (height) energy will be the same.
- That is, although it has gained height, it has not increased the total energy in the system.
- Only the type of energy has changed.
(1) Total Energy Venturi
- Designed to prevent the variometer showing an “UP” reading for a gain of height caused by reduction in speed.
- If the zoom is made in a thermal and a real increase in total energy is achieved it will show “UP”.
- The venturi does this by producing a reduction of pressure equal to the pitot pressure increase.
(2) Mechanical Compensator
- May be used in order to do any with the drag of a venturi, but these are usually only accurate over a narrow height band.
(3) Electronic Compensator
Some electronic varios have this and have inputs of static and pitot pressure to provide the basic information.
○ Speed Director
- Combines elements of the airspeed indicator, variometer, and Mccready theoretical performance for the sailplane type.
(1) Mccready Ring Speed Director
- It is arranged so that the indicator needle reads zero when the sailplane is at the correct Maccready speed for the air movement around it at the time, the weight of the sailplane (ballast or not) and must be done smoothly and it needs practice to develop the skill.
(2) Electric Speed Director
- Usually have a sound system as well so that the pilot does not need to watch the indicator dial.
- Care must be taken to ensure the pilot, static and venturi tubes do not become blocked or bent to the wrong angle.
- Slip or skid in excess of 10 degrees can cause errors in some or all of the pressures, and thus cause incorrect indications.
★ Total Energy Compensators

図

図    図

図

< < VARIOMETER >>
The variometer is essential for modern soaring flight. It is a very sensitive instruments that shows if the glider is clibming or descending, and how fast. The variometer can be calibrated in knots, feet per minutes, or meters per second.

Basic variometers work by detecting a rate of airflow between a capacity and a static source.

図

When the glider climbs, the air inside the capacity expands and flows out through the instrument; when the glider descents, the airflows into the flask.
The rate at which this air flows causes the needle to deflect the appropriate amount.
Electric variometer work on the principle of air flowing past thermistors causing differential cooling which requires differential voltage to keep the thermistors at a constant temperature.
Electric variometers tend to be much quicker than mechanical variometer has double that or even worse.
< < TOTAL ENERGY >>
A variometer installed as described will work just fine, showing when the glider climbs and descends.
The problem with this simple system is that if the pilot pulls the control stick back, the variometer will the resulting temporary climb.
These pilot induced climbs and descents are commonry called “stick thermals”. These stick thermals can be cancelled out by installing any one of several total energy devices.
The most common of these is a total energy probe.
A total energy probe is usually a bent tube with slots or tiny holes on the downstream side, mounted on the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer.

図

There are other ways to produce total energy, but the T.E. probe is simple, effective and inexpensive.
Electric variometers can perform this task electronically, but require an accurate static source, which may not be available on the aircraft.

An important option is an audio device for the variometer.
This can be installed on either a mechanical varionmeter or an electric one.
The audio provides an audible sound when the variometer needle deflects.
The typical climb tone is a broken beep-beep-beep that increases in pitch and frequency as the climb rate improves.
The descending sound is a steady tone that decreases in pitch as the sink rate increases.

The variometer should be equipped with a speed-to-fly ring.

Competition pilots will often equip their gliders with the newest of the electronic gadgetry.
Audio speed-to-fly directors and flight computers are very useful to reduce the mental workload on the competition pilot so the pilot can concentrate on tactics, flying accurately and where to fly next in search of the best lift.

★ Glide Path Computer
- Available as an additional to the speed indicator.
- It uses the pitot, static venturi information from the direction as well as the Mccready setting and wing loading.
- When a distance is set, this information is computed to give a height required for that distance.
- As the distance is flown it reduces this (from the pitot / static information) and re-calicurating the height continuously.
- When a thermal is taken it must be switched from cruise to climb mode, the computer ignores the forward speed of the sailplane and allows for the wind drift.
- They are most useful in a glide to a destination (final glide) when only sufficient height for a circuit is desired on reaching the goal.
- By using a check point half way along a leg, discrepancies between the planned distance and actual distance covered are rectified by adjusting the wind component.
- These instruments are very helpful in conditions where navigation is difficult.
★ G-Meter (Accelerometer)
- To show what G load are being applied to the glider.
- A useful education aid for the teaching of aerobatics.
- It is not mandatory, unless specified in the glider’s flight manual as minimum equipment for aerobatics.
★ Global Positioning System (GPS)
- A satellite based navigation system of extreme accuracy.
- As well as giving an accurate lat / long position, it can also give height if enough satellites are acquired by the unit.
- Use the navigation signal transmitted from series of satellites.
- GPS receiver determines its position in terms of longitude and latitude by knowing prices location of each satellites and accurately measuring the times of signal takes to travel to the receiver.
- A minimum of 3 satellites are required for lateral guidance, while 4 are needed for lateral and vertical guidance.
★ Gyroscopic Instruments
Attitude Indicator    Vacuum or Electronic
Heading Indicator        Vacuum or Electronic
Turn Coordinator        Electronic
- They are usually operated vacuum or electrically.
- By having different power sources individual gyros have back up information if one system fails.
- They are used to give steady indications of horizontal, bank angle, rate of turn and direction when a visual reference is not available, when in cloud.
○ The Primary Element of Each Gyroscopic Instrument.
- A heavily constructed spinning gyro amounted in ginbos.
- If the gyro is freely or universally amounted, it remain fixed position no matter where moved its base.
- The degree of stability is principle called “Rigidity in space”.
- Inside the instrument a rapidly spinning gyro tends to resist the external forces produced as the aircraft maneuver around it.
★ Attitude Indicator
- By having the gyro remaining relatively fixed position, the aircrafts attitude can be majors in relation to the gyro and will be displayed on instrument face.
- It receive power from vacuum system for powered aircraft.
○ Wrong indications
- If accelerated rapidly the instrument may indicate the slight climb.
- When decelerate rapidly there the initial indication is that slightly descend.
★ Heading Indicator
- The spinning gyro on the heading indicator is aligned with vertical plane, allowing it to sense any changes airplane vertical axis.
- It receive  power from the vacuum system for powered aircraft.
○ Very Suspect-able To Gyroscopic Precession
- As maneuver the airplane the external forces acting on the gyro cause the heading to drift very slowly.
- Need to periodically realign it with the magnetic compass. – Every 15 minutes.
★ Vacuum or Suction Gauge
- Normally position on the instrument panel to allow to monitor the vacuum pressure.
- If the pressure is not on adequate level, the gyro instruments could be unreliable.
★ Turn Coordinator
- Incorporates principle called precession.
- Whenever aircrafts attitude changes the pressure is existed by external forces tend to make the gyros changed aircraft rotation or precession.
- The faster the change, the greater the pressures, therefore precession.
- Majors the precession of its gyro, and indicates the rate of turn.
- Uses electrical power.
● RADIO NAVIGATION
★ VOR – Very high frequency Omni-directional Range                  1-2-3
- Give an accurate position of the aircraft in relation to the station.
- OBS – Omni Bearing Selector
- CDI – Course Deviation Indicator
○ Distance Off Course

図

- Number of dots x 200’ft x Distance from the station
- Distance off course (feet) / 600 (Nautical Miles)
○ Time to the station
- 60min x Minutes Flown / Degrees of bearing change
○ ILS Indicator – Instrument Landing System

図

When you drift to left and above the course
↓
To return to proper approach path, you need to turn right and descent.
- The combination of localizer and glide slope.
- Around to visualize your position along the final approach path.
★ HSI – Horizontal Situation Indicator

図

- Combination of the heading indicator and the VOR.
★ DME – Distance Measuring Equipment

図

- A signal delay in time is measured in nautical miles from the station.
○ Construction
◎ Monocoque
- The skin carries all loads and becomes the only structure, is capable of being molded to accurate tolerances and superb finish.
- An increase in performance that may only be achieved in wood or metal structures at much greater expense.
★ Three Forces
- In steady flight, the total reaction force balances the weight.
- The point about which the sailplane would balance is called the center of gravity designed to be close to same point at which the total lift force acts ; the center of pressure.
- Naturally different pilot weights, and different airspeed, will cause small changes in the position of these two centers.
- The sailplane is designed so that the center of gravity is always ahead of the center of pressure.
- The tail-plane is designed to make a small down load which can be varied to achive a balance at different weights and speeds.
★ ADF – Automatic Directional Finder
- Needle in aircraft points to NDB station.
- NDB – Non Directional Beacon.
○ Magnetic Bearing “TO” the station – MBTS
- Magnetic heading (MH) + Relative Bearing (RB)
○ Magnetic Bearing “FROM” the station.
- MB to the station (MBTS) – 180Deg.
★ RMI- Radio Magnetic Indicator
- Needle in aircraft point to VOR station.
○ Time
- Minutes x 60 / Degrees
○ Distance
- Minutes x TAS / Degrees

図

図

図

図

図

★ Pitot – Static Instruments

図

○ Airspeed Indicator

図

○ Altimeter

図

○ Vertical Speed Indicator

図

★ Gyroscopic Instruments

図

○ Attitude Indicator

図

○ Heading Indicator & Magnetic Compass

図

○ Turn Coordinator

図

図

★ Engine Instruments

○ Tachometer

図

○ Oil Pressure & Temperature Gauge

図

○ Cylinder Head Temperature Gauge

図

○ Manifold Pressure Gauge & Fuel Flow Indicator

図

図

○ Engine Gas Temperature Gauge (EGT)

★ Electrical Instruments

○ Fuel Quantity Gauge

図

○ Ammeter

図

★ NAV Instruments

○ Basic VOR Indicator

図

○ Horizontal Situation Indicator

図

○ Radio Magnetic Indicator

図

図

図

図

図

1.You: Call to 1-800-WX-BRIEF (99-27433)
2.FSS: “Flight Service…”
3.You: “Good morning, Sir / Madam.
I’d like to (file a flight plan and ) standard WX BRIEFing, please.”
4.FSS: “Go ahead.”
5.You: Give your information.
1) AIRCRAFT “Aircraft, NXXXXX,”
2) TYPE “Type, Grob103(One Oh Threeh),”
3) “VFR,”
4) Dept. A/P “Departure Airport, Seminole,”
5) ETD “Estimated Departure, 1800Z(Zulu),”
6) Route of flight “Route of flight, XXX VOR, XX,…,”
7) Alt. of flight “Altitude, 5.5 Thousand,”
Arrival A/P “and Destination, XXX Airport.”
9) ETA “Estimated Arrival, XXXX Z(Zulu).”
6. FSS:
1) Adverse Conditions
> Significant meteorological information
> Aeronautical information
- Might influence the pilot to alter the proposed flight.
- Hazardous WX conditions
- Runway closures
- Navaid outages.
2) VFR Flight NOT Recommended
> Present
- Sky conditions
- Visivilities
> Forcast
- Sky conditions
- Visivilities
> Surface
> Aloft
3) Synoptic Situation : Type, Location, and Movement
> WX Systems
> Air masses
> Might affect the proposed flight

4) Current WX Conditions
Omitted if the proposed time of departure is beyond 2 hours.
> “SAs”
> PIREPs
> RAREPs
5) En Route WX Forecast
> Forecast en route conditions
- Departure point / Climbout
- En route
- Descent
6) Destination Forecast
> Any significant change within 1 hour before and after the planned arrival.
7) Wind Aloft
> Forecast Wind Aloft
- Wind directions
- Wind speeds
Notice to Airmen (NOTAMs)
> NOTAM(D)
> NOTAM(L)
> FDC NOTAMs
9) ATC Delays
> Any known ATC delays
> Flow control advisories
10) Request
> Information on MTR and MOA activities
> A review of the NOTAMs and special NOTICEs.
> Approximate density altitude data.
> Information regarding air traffic services and rules,
customs / immigration procedures, ADIZ rules, search and rescue.
> LORAN-C NOTAMs
> Other assistance

！：CNNなどアメリカの普通のテレビの天気予報、英字新聞の天気予報などはこのウェザーブリーフィングと同じような内容です（当たり前か..）。とても勉強になります。

０１．BEFORE EXTERIOR CHECK – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Chokes In	CK
2	Tie Down & Gust Lock	REMOVE
3	Maintenance Sheet and Required Document Equipment	CK
4	All S/W	OFF
5	Landing Gear Handle	DOWN
6	Circuit Brakers	ALL IN
7	Batt. Master S/W	ON
8	Fuel Quantity	CK
9	Gear Indicator	3 GREENS
10	Annunciator Panel	CK
11	Light Equipments	CK
12	Batt. Master S/W	OFF
13	Control Lock	REMOVE
14	Fuel Cock	RIGHT (or LOWEST TANK)
15	Trim Tab	SET NEUTRAL
16	Flaps	FULL DOWN
17	Pitot Drain	DRAIN & CLOSE
18	Static Drain	DRAIN & CLOSE

０２．EXTERIOR CHECK – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Seat Condition	CK
2	Door Operation	CK
3	Right Wing ; Flap, Aileron, NAV Light, Surface, and Leading Edge.	CK
4	Right Fuel Tank ; Fuel Drain, Quantity, Grade, and Cap.	CK
5	Right Landing Gear ; Brake Line, Disk & Linning, Strut, Slip Mark, and Tire Condition & Inflation.	CK
6	E/G Compertment ; Oil Quantity ( 8 qts), E/G Accessary, and Cowling.	CK
7	Nose Section ; Air Filter, Landing Light, Propeller, and Spinner.	CK
8	Nose Gear ; Strut, Slip Mark, and Tire Condition & Inflation.	CK
9	E/G Compertment ; E/G Accessary, Cowling.	CK
10	Fuel Drain	CK
11	Wind Shield	CK
12	Left Landing Gear ; The Same As Right Landing Gear.	CK
13	Left Fuel Tank ; The Same As Right Fuel Tank.	CK
14	Left Wing ; The Same As Right Wing & Pitot Head, Static Vent, Stall Warning, and Landing Light.	CK
15	Left Fuselage ; Surface, VHF Ant., [ADF Ant.], [DME Ant], Transponder Ant., and From Pressure Head.	CK
16	Stabilizer ; VOR Ant., Beacon Light, NAV Light, Rudder, Stabilator, and Trim Tab.	CK
17	Right Fuselage	CK
18	Flaps	UP

０３．PASSENGER BRIEFING – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Smoking or Non Smoking	(                                 )
2	Use of Safety Belt	(                                 )
3	Placement of Seat Back	(                                 )
4	Opening Passenger Entry Door	(                                 )
5	Survival Equipment	(                                 )
6	[Flotation Equipment	(                                )]
7	[Oxygen Equipment	(                                )]
8	[Fire Extinguishere	(                                )]

０４．BEFORE STARTING ENGINE – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Seat & Safety Belt	ADJUST & FASTEN
2	Doors	LATCH
3	Window	OPEN
4	Parking Brake	SET
5	Control	CK & FREE
6	Trim	CK
7	Instrument	CK
8	Altimeter	SET (Field Elevation)
9	Radio Master S/W	OFF
10	Circuit Breakers	ALL IN
11	Fuel Cock	RIGHT (or LOWEST TANK)
12	Throttle	1/2in. OPEN
13	Propeller	HIGH rpm
14	Mixture	IDLE CUT OFF
15	Alternate Air	CLOSE

０５．STARTING ENGINE – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	CK Propeller	CALL “CLEAR”
2	[CK Ignition Key	IN POSITION]
3	Batt. & Alt. S/W	ON (CALL “S/W ON”)
4	Fuel Quantity	CK
5	Fuel Pump	ON (CK FUEL PRESS.)
6	Mixture	FUEL FLOW (USE AS NECESSARY)
7	Magnetos	ON & START (Call “CONTACT”)
8	Mixture	FULL RICH
9	Oil Pressure	CK
10	Throttle	1200rpm SET
11	Fuel Pump	OFF (CK FUEL PRESS.)
12	Radio Master S/W	ON
13	Audio Control System	CK
14	Radio S/W	ON & SET
15	VOR, [ADF]	ON & SET
16	[DME	ON & SET]
17	All Instruments	CK
18	D/G, Gyro Horizon	SET
19	Transponder	STBY
20	Beacon Light	ON
21	Light Equipment	AS REQUIRED
22	Heator & Defroster	AS REQUIRED
23	[ATIS	CK]
24	[Altimeter	SET (QNH)]
25	[Clearance Delivery	CONTACT]

０６．TAXI – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	[Ground Control	CONTACT]
2	Throttle	CLOSE
3	Chokes	CK (CALL “CHOKES OUT”)
4	Parking Brake	RELEASED
5	Throttle	ADVANCE
6	Brakes & Steering	CK
7	Turn Cordinator	CK
8	D/G & Compass	CK

０７．TAKE OFF BRIEFING – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Airport/Using Runway	(                                 )
2	Field Elevation	(                                ft)
3	Runway Length	(                                ft)
4	Takeoff Distance	(                                ft)
5	Best Glide Speed	(                               kts) 105/???
6	Rotation Speed	(                               kts) 70/??
7	Liftoff Speed	(                               kts) 75/??
8	Vx	(                              kts) 85-96/??-??
9	Vy	(                              kts) 95-105/??-??
10	If Engine Failure Occures
	* At or Before Liftoff	CLOSE THROTTLE
		APPLY BRAKES
		ABORT TAKEOFF
	* After liftoff	NOSE BELOW HORIZON
		MAINTAIN BEST GLIDE
		EXECUTE FORCED LANDING TO OPEN AREA

０８．ENGINE RUN-UP – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Parking Brake	SET
2	Throttle	1200rpm
3	Control	CK & FREE
4	Flaps	CK
5	Trim	SET to T/O POSITION
6	E/G Instrument	CK
7	Fuel Cock	LEFT (or FULLEST TANK)
8	Throttle	2000rpm
9	Suction, Ammeter	CK
10	Annunciator Panel	CK
11	Magneto Drop	CK (MAX 175rpm)
12	Alternate Air	CK
13	Propeller	CYCLE (MAX 500rpm)
13	Throttle	1000rpm
14	Mixture	CK
15	Throttle	IDLE (600 + or – 50rpm)
16	Magneto Ground Earth	CK
17	Acceleration & Deceleration	CK
18	Throttle	1200rpm
19	Fuel Pump	ON
20	All Instruments	CK
21	Window	CLOSE
22	Recheck	———-
	Fuel Cock	ON
	Magneto	BOTH
	Propeller	HIGH rpm
	Mixture	FULL RICH
	Fuel Pump	ON
	Door	LATCH
23	Parking Brake	RELEASED
24	[Control Tower	CONTACT]

０９．TAKE OFF – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Brakes	HOLD
2	Throttle	1500rpm
3	E/G Instruments	CK
4	D/G	RESET
5	Transponder	ALT
6	Brakes	RELEASE
7	Throttle	FULL POWER
8	Lift Off Speed	(                               kts) 75/??
9	Climb Vy	(                              kts) 95-100/??-??

１０．AFTER TAKE OFF – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	E/G Instruments	CK
2	Landing Gear	UP
2	Flaps	UP CK
4	Climb Power	SET (25in. 2500rpm)
5	Mixture	ADJUST (13gal/h)
4	Fuel Pump	OFF
5	Fuel Pressure	CK

１１．LEVEL OFF – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	E/G Instruments	CK
2	Fuel Quantity	CK
3	Cruse power	SET (22in. 2400rpm)
3	Mixture	ADJUST (10Gal/h)
4	Trim	SET
5	D/G	RESET
6	Landing Light	OFF

１２．APPROACH – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	E/G Instrument	CK
2	Fuel Quantity	CK
3	Mixture	FULL RICH
4	D/G	RESET
5	Safety Belt	FASTEN
6	[ATIS	CK]
7	[App. Control, Control Tower	CONTACT]
8	Landing Light	ON

１３．LANDING BRIEFING – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Airport/Using Runway	(                                 )
2	Field Elevation	(                                ft)
3	Runway Length	(                                ft)
4	Landing Distance	(                                ft)
5	Traffic Pattern Altitude	(                                ft)
6	Approach Speed	(                               kts) 90/??
7	Threshhold Target Speed	(                               kts) 85/??

１４．PRE LANDING – PA28R (G.U.M.P.S.)

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Gas/Fuel Quantity	CK
2	Under Carrage/Brake	DOWN
3	Mixture	FULL RICH
4	Power/Approach Power	SET
5	Switch/Fuel Pump	ON

１５．LANDING – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Throttle	( rpm) 17/17
2	Vfe	CK ( kts) 115/103/102
3	Flaps	DOWN 15��
4	Air Speed	( kts) 100/??
5	Flaps	DOWN 25��
6	Air Speed	( kts)95/??
7	Propeller	HIGH rpm
8	Gear Indicator	3 GREENS
7	Flaps	DOWN 40��
8	Approach Speed	( kts) 90/??
9	Throttle	CLOSE
10	Threshold Target Speed	( kts) 70/60/65
11	Flare	1_2_3

１６．AFTER LANDING – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Flaps	UP
2	Fuel Pump	OFF
3	Transponder	OFF
4	Landing Light	OFF
5	[Ground Control	CONTACT]

１７．ENGINE SHUT-DOWN – PA28R

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Parking Brake	SET
2	Throttle	1000rpm
3	[ELT 121.5	CK]
4	All Elect. S/W	OFF
5	Radio Master S/W	OFF
6	E/G Instrument	CK
7	Mixture Idle	CUT OFF
8	Throttle	CLOSE
9	Magnetos (at Propeller Stop)	OFF
10	Batt. & Alt. S/W	OFF (Call “ALL S/W OFF”)
11	Trim	NEUTRAL
12	Heater & Defroster	OFF
13	Parking Brake	RELEASE
14	Chokes	IN 214/???

V-SPEEDs – PA28R

	VNE	( KIAS) 170/???
	VNO	( KIAS) 131/???
	VA	( KIAS) 125/???
	VFE	( KIAS) 105/??
	VS0	( KIAS) 125/???
	VS1	( KIAS) 64/??
	VX	( KIAS) 71/??
	VY	( KIAS) 85-96/??-??
	VLE	( KIAS) 95-100/??-??
	Approach Air Speed	( KIAS) 150/???
	Best Glide Air Speed	( KIAS) 90/??

EMERGENCY – ENGINE FAILURE – PA28R

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Best Glide Speed	( kts)
2	Flaps	UP
3	Trim	SET
4	Carb Heat	HOT
5	Landing Area	CK & APPROACH
6	Wind	CK
7	Altitude	CK
	�� TROUBLE SHOOT ��
1	Fuel Cock	BOTH ON
2	Mixture	FULL RICH
3	Primer	LOCK
4	Magneto	BOTH
	�� RESTART ��
1	Throttle	1-2in OPEN
2	Magnetos	START
3	Carb Heat	COLD
	�� SECURE ��
1	Throttle	CLOSE
2	Mixture	IDLE CUT OFF
3	Magnetos	OFF
4	Fuel Valve	OFF
5	Elect. S/W	OFF
6	Transponder	SET CODE 7700
7	Radio 121.5	CALL “MAYDAY”
8	Flaps	AS REQUIRED
9	Emergency Landing	( kts)
10	Master S/W	OFF
11	Door	UNLATCH
12	Flare	1_2_3

EMERGENCY – LOST POSITION ( 9Cs )

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
01	Circle	PRESENT POSITION
02	Climb	HIGH ENOUGH
03	Chart	CK
04	CDI	VOR CROSS CK
05	Check Point	LOOK
06	Compass Heading	FLY “E,W,S&N”
07	Course	GO BACK to IDENTIFIED POINT
08	Contact	ATC or GROUND FREQUENCY
09	Comply	ASSISTANCE INSTRUCTIONS

SPECIAL VFR CLEARANCE

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
01	( Aircraft ID )	NXXXXX
02	Cleared ( to Enter/Out of ) ( Airport ) Control Zone
03	( Position/Heading )
04	Maintain special VFR conditions
05	At or Below ( Altitude )
06	While in Control Zone.
07	Report ( Position ).

０１．BEFORE EXTERIOR CHECK – C172RG

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Chokes in	CK
2	Tie down & Gust lock	REMOVE
3	Maintenance sheet & Required document equipment	CK
4	All S/W	OFF
5	Landing Gear Handle	DOWN
6	Circuit brakers	ALL IN
7	Master S/W	ON
8	Fuel Quantity	CK
9	Gear Indicator	3 GREENS
10	Flaps	FULL DOWN
11	Light equipments	CK
12	Master S/W	OFF
13	Control lock	REMOVE
14	Fuel cock	BOTH ON
15	Trim tab	SET NEUTRAL

０２．EXTERIOR CHECK – C172RG

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
01	Seat Condition	CK
02	Door Operation	CK
03	Left Fuselage Surface, VHF Ant., ( ADF Ant. ),( DME Ant ), Transponder Ant.	CK
04	Stabilizer VOR Ant., Beacon Light, NAV. Light, Rudder, Elevator, Trim Tab	CK
05	Right fuselage	CK
06	Right Wing Flap, Aileron, NAV Light, Surface, Leading Edge	CK
07	Right Fuel Tank Fuel Drain, Quantity, Grade, Cap	CK
08	Right Landing Gear Brake Line, Disk & Linning, Slip Mark, Tire Condition & Inflation	CK
09	E/G Compertment Oil Quantity ( 6 qt), E/G Accessary, Cowling	CK
10	Fuel Drain	CK
11	Nose Section Air Filter, ( Landing Light ), Propeller, Spinner	CK
12	Nose Gear Strut, Slip Mark, Tire, Shimmy Damper	CK
13	E/G Compertment Static Vent, Cowling	CK
14	Windshield	CK
15	Left Fuel Tank The Same as Right Fuel Tank	CK
16	Left Wing The Same as Right Wing & Pitot Tube Stall Warning, ( Landing Light )	CK
17	Left Landing Gear The Same as Right Landing Gear	CK

０３．PASSENGER BRIEFING – C172RG

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Smoking or Non smoking	( )
2	Use of Safety Belt	( )
3	Placement of Seat Back	( )
4	Opening Passenger Entry Door	( )
5	Survival Equipment	( )
6	[Flotation Equipment	( )]
7	[Oxygen Equipment	( )]
8	[Fire Extinguishere	( )]

０４．BEFORE STARTING ENGINE – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Seat & Safety Belt	ADJUST & FASTEN
2	Door	LATCH
3	Window	OPEN
4	Parking Brake	SET
5	Control	CK & FREE
6	Trim	CK
7	Instrument	CK
8	Altimeter	SET (Field Elevation)
9	All ElectS/W	OFF
10	Circuit breakers	ALL IN
11	Primer	LOCK (Use As Necessary)
12	Carb. Heat	COLD
13	Throttle	1/8 in. OPEN
14	Propeller	HIGH rpm
15	MixtureIdle	FULL RICH
16	Fuel Cock	BOTH ON

０５．STARTING ENGINE – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	CK Propeller	CALL “CLEAR”
2	CK Ignition Key	IN POSITION
3	Master S/W	ON (CALL “S/W ON”)
4	Fuel Quantity	CK
5	Magnetos	START (Call “CONTACT”)
9	Oil Pressure	CK
10	Throttle 1200rpm	SET
12	[Avionics power S/W	ON]
13	[Avionics Fan S/W	ON]
14	Radio S/W	ON & SET
15	VOR [ADF]	ON & SET
16	All Instruments	CK
17	D/G Gyro Horizon	SET
18	Transponder	STBY
19	Beacon Light	ON
20	Light Equipments	AS REQUIRED
21	Heater & Defroster	AS REQUIRED
22	Flaps	Up & NEUTRAL
23	[ATIS	CK]
24	[Altimeter	SET (QNH)]
25	[Clearance Delivery	CONTACT]

０６．TAXI – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	[Ground Control	CONTACT]
2	Throttle	CLOSE
3	Chokes	CK (CALL “CHOKES OUT”)
4	Parking Brake	RELEASED
5	Throttle	ADVANCE
6	Brakes & Steering	CK
7	Turn Cordinator	CK
8	D/G & Compass	CK

０７．TAKE OFF BRIEFING – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Airport/Using Runway	( )
2	Field Elevation	( ft)
3	Runway Length	( ft)
4	Takeoff Distance	( ft)
5	Best Glide Speed	( kts) 73
6	Rotation Speed	( kts) 50
7	Liftoff Speed	( kts) 55
8	Vx	( kts) 67
9	Vy	( kts) 84
10	If Engine Failure Occures
	* At or Before Liftoff	CLOSE THROTTLE
		APPLY BRAKES
		ABORT TAKEOFF
	* After Liftoff	NOSE BELOW HORIZON
		MAINTAIN BEST GLIDE
		EXCUTE FORCED LANDING TO OPEN AREA

０８．ENGINE RUN-UP – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Parking Brake	SET
2	Throttle	1200rpm
3	Control	CK & FREE
4	Flaps	CK
5	Trim	T/O POSITION SET
6	E/G Instruments	CK
7	Fuel Cock	[BOTH] ON
8	Throttle	1700rpm
9	[Suction Ammeter]	CK
10	Magneto	DROP CK (MAX125rpm)
11	Carb. Heat	CK
12	Propeller	CYCLE (MAX 500rpm)
13	Throttle	1000rpm
14	Mixture	CK
15	Throttle	IDLE (600�}50rpm)
16	Magneto Ground Earth	CK
17	Acceleration & Deceleration	CK
18	Throttle	1200rpm
19	All instruments	CK
20	Window	CLOSE
21	Rechek
	Primer	LOCK
	Magneto	BOTH
	Carb. Heat	COLD
	Propeller	HIGH rpm
	Mixture	FULL RICH
	Fuel Cock	BOTH ON
	Door	LATCH
22	Parking Brake	RELEASED
23	[Control Tower	CONTACT]

０９．TAKE OFF – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Brakes	HOLD
2	Throttle	1500rpm
3	E/G Instruments	CK
4	D/G	RESET
5	Transponder	ALT
6	Brakes	RELEASED
7	Throttle	FULL POWER
8	Lift Off Speed	( kts) 55
9	Climb Vy	( kts) 84

１０．AFTER TAKE OFF – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	E/G Instruments	CK
2	Landing Gear	UP
3	Flaps UP	CK
4	Carb. Heat	COLD CK
5	Climb Power	SET (25in 2500rpm)

１１．LEVEL OFF – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	E/G Instruments	CK
2	Fuel Quantity	CK
3	Cruise Power	SET (22in 2400rpm)
4	Mixture	ADJUST
5	Trim	SET
6	D/G	RESET
7	Landing Light	OFF

１２．APPROACH – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	E/G Instruments	CK
2	Fuel Quantity	CK
3	Mixture	FULL RICH
4	D/G	RESET
5	Safety Belt	FASTEN
6	[ATIS	CK]
7,[App. Control, Control Tower	CONTACT]
8	Landing Light	ON

１３．LANDING BRIEFING – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Airport/Using Runway	( )
2	Field Elevation	( ft)
3	Runway Length	( ft)
4	Landing Distance	( ft)
5	Traffic Pattern Altitude	( ft)
6	Approach Speed	( kts) 65
7	Threshold Target Speed	( kts) 60

１４．PRE LANDING – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Gas/Fuel Quantity	CK
2	Under Carrage/Brakes	CK
3	Mixture	FULL RICH
4	Power/Approach Power	SET
5	Switch/Landing Light	ON
6	Carb. Heat	HOT

１５．LANDING – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Throttle	( in)17
2	Vfe	CK ( kts) 85
3	Flaps	10��DOWN
4	Air Speed	( kts) 75
5	Flaps	20��DOWN
6	Air Speed	( kts) 70
7	Propeller	HIGH rpm
8	Gear Indicator	3 GREENS
9	Flaps	30�� DOWN
10	Approach Speed	( kts) 65
11	Throttle	CLOSE
12	Threshold Target Speed	( kts) 60
13	Flare	1_2_3

１６．AFTER LANDING – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Flaps	UP
2	Carb. Heat	COLD
3	Transponder	OFF
4	Landing Light	OFF
5	[Ground Control	CONTACT]

１７．ENGINE SHUT-DOWN – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Parking Brake	SET
2	Throttle	1000rpm
3	[ELT 121.5	CK]
4	All Elect. S/W	OFF
5	[Avionics Fan S/W	OFF]
6	[Avionics Power S/W	OFF]
7	E/G Instruments	CK
8	Mixture	IDLE CUT OFF
9	Throttle	CLOSE
10	Magnetos (at propeller stop)	OFF
11	Master S/W	OFF (CALL “ALL S/W OFF”)
12	Trim	NEUTRAL
13	Heater & Defroster	OFF
14	Parking Brake	RELEASE
15	Chokes	IN

V-SPEEDs – C172RG

	VNE	( KIAS) 128
	VNO	( KIAS) 97
	VA	( KIAS) 85
	VFE	( KIAS) 73
	VS0	( KIAS) ??
	VS1	( KIAS) ??
	VX	( KIAS) ??
	VY	( KIAS) 67
	VL0	( KIAS) ??
	VLE	( KIAS) 84
	Approach Air Speed	( KIAS) ??
	Best Glide Air Speed	( KIAS) 65

EMERGENCY – ENGINE FAILURE – C172RG

No	PROCEDURE	ACTION
1	Best Glide Speed	( kts) 73
2	Flaps	UP
3	Trim	SET
4	Fuel pump	ON
5	Landing Area	CK & APPROACH
6	Wind	CK
7	Altitude	CK
	�� TROUBLE SHOOT ��
1	Fuel Cock	BOTH ON
2	Mixture	FULL RICH
3	Magneto	BOTH
	�� RESTART ��
1	Throttle	1-2in OPEN
2	Magnetos	START
	�� SECURE ��
1	Throttle	CLOSE
2	Mixture	IDLE CUT OFF
3	Magnetos	OFF
4	Fuel Valve	OFF
5	Elect. S/W	OFF
6	Transponder	SET CODE 7700
7	Radio 121.5	CALL “MAYDAY”
8	Flaps	AS REQUIRED
9	Emergency Landing	( kts) 65
10	Master S/W	OFF
11	Door	UNLATCH
12	Flare	1_2_3

EMERGENCY – LOST POSITION ( 9Cs )

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
01	Circle	PRESENT POSITION
02	Climb	HIGH ENOUGH
03	Chart	CK
04	CDI	VOR CROSS CK
05	Check Point	LOOK
06	Compass Heading	FLY “E,W,S&N”
07	Course	GO BACK to IDENTIFIED POINT
08	Contact	ATC or GROUND FREQUENCY
09	Comply	ASSISTANCE INSTRUCTIONS

SPECIAL VFR CLEARANCE

No.	PROCEDURE	ACTION
01	( Aircraft ID )	NXXXXX
02	Cleared ( to Enter/Out of ) ( Airport ) Control Zone
03	( Position/Heading )
04	Maintain special VFR conditions
05	At or Below ( Altitude )
06	While in Control Zone.
07	Report ( Position ).

※注意事項